Strategy planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5250 words

System arranging - Essay Example McDonald’s manages a wide scope of items like cheeseburgers just as French Fries, chicken sandwiches alongside soda pops, pastries and different kinds of breakfast things (Gilbert, 2008). So as to decide the noteworthiness of different outside components that sway in transit McDonald’s conducts its business, it very well may be seen that legitimate examination of the outer elements made the organization to raise its business notoriety and furthermore to achieve unrivaled serious situation by a more prominent level. So as to dissect the outside condition of McDonald’s, certain proper devices have been taken into concern like SWOT and STEEP which are portrayed beneath. STEEP Analysis Socio-social Factors: McDonald’s sets up and follows a viable framework so as to survey the prerequisites of the business markets where it works. It focuses primarily on the procedure of independence of the clients corresponding to item conduct and choices on buys (Ivanova, 2011 ). Innovative Factors: McDonald’s manages expansive grouping of cheap food related items which creates a more prominent interest of these items by embracing alongside executing spearheading mechanical methodology concerning its stock framework and gracefully chain among others (Ivanova, 2011). Ecological Factors: Relating to natural factor, McDonald’s to a great extent centers upon viably performing various kinds of corporate social accountabilities as far as using bio-degradable substances in its expansive exhibit of items (Ivanova, 2011). Financial Factors: McDonald’s has a penchant to rehearse a lot of trouble in specific situations where there exists the huge worry of expansion and variance in return rates. Uncommonly referencing, the varieties in the trade rates have an unequivocal impact in the general tasks of the organization (Ivanova, 2011). Political Factors: McDonald’s adheres to an interesting arrangement of directions and approaches for perfo rming diverse operational capacities adequately. It essentially focuses on a few arrangements of tensions, for example, regions of wellbeing, condition and insurance of the laborers also. These components can be seen in the state control of permitting of the cafés in various areas where the organization works (Ivanova, 2011). SWOT Analysis Strengths: McDonald’s has a solid and presumed brand name over the globe. It bears a solid organization with other various organizations which in the long run outcomes in increment of its generosity in the market. The organization is supposed to be the principal drive-through eatery which offered its clients with healthful realities and as an outcome the faithful workers, clients and the board structure to be its greatest qualities (Scribd Inc., 2013). Shortcoming: McDonald’s has a skeptical notoriety concerning turnover pace of its workers. Identifying with shortcoming, it for the most part faces quality issues now and again and it likewise gets reactions especially from wellbeing cognizant individuals (Scribd Inc., 2013). Openings: McDonald’s ought to offer online types of assistance for its customers with the goal that they can arrange sitting at home which in

Data Examination on National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and Essay

Information Examination on National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and on vehicle and person on foot mishaps over the US - Essay Example The nonstop decrease in the pace of fender benders started in 2006, aside from 2012 when the rate expanded. This data was given by the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS). As per the National Automotive Sampling System (NASS) that the quantity of people harmed diminished in 2013. Notwithstanding, the decrease rate isn't viewed as noteworthy factually. The degree of casualty for 100 million vehicle mile voyaged (VMT) decreased by 3.5%, from the 2012 estimation of 1.14 to the 2013 estimation of 1.10. This is the most reduced casualty level at any point recorded; additionally the general injury level decreased by 2.5%, as represented by the 2013 figures. The general fatalities decreased by 3.1%. The decrease was limited in all classes, aside from the pedal cyclists. 21,132 passings were knowledgeable about 2013 among the traveler vehicle inhabitants; this number is the most minimal at any point recorded by NHTSA. A key decrease included the bike fatalities that diminished by 6.4%. Person on foot fatalities likewise decreased in 2013 by 1.7%. Subsequently, expanded spotlight ought to be put on passerby

Apple Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Apple - Essay Example These product and equipment frameworks have since quite a while ago gave achievement respect to the company’s productivity. In addition, while the company’s software engineers, specialists, creators, and other faculty speak to distinct advantages, Apple Inc.’s capacity to misuse these personnel’s capacities to create equipment and programming environments envelops the firm’s key capacity. On an individual level, the assets speak to just a brief division of the firm’s upper hand. Nonetheless, the mix of all the personnel’s capacities makes the firm’s feasible upper hand. The foundation of Apple stores additionally gave the organization noteworthy assets for physical nearness since the stores go about as deals areas, just as methods for commercial. The stores permit the organization to screen and control brand picture inside the market. So as to keep up its current, key position, and upgrade its achievement in the coming years, Ap ple Inc. should build up exceptionally inventive programming and equipment to expand its present assets. Likewise, the organization ought to likewise attempt to utilize staff with Jobs’ enthusiasm for greatness (Lashinsky 58). Such work force ought shape the company’s vital arranging office, yet all offices in the whole organization. Situational Analysis The organization has a somewhat fascinating statement of purpose that not just gives center to the organization as far as its business tasks and procedures. The company’s site gives a rundown of its items instead of a traditional statement of purpose. The company’s official statement of purpose expresses that it structures Macs, the best PCs universally, close by OS X, iLife, iWork, and other expert programming. Macintosh coordinates the advanced music upset through its iTunes online store and iPods. In any case, mainstream views hold that Apple Inc. got its customary statement of purpose from one of Stev e Jobs’ cites during the 1980s. Jobs’ statement can be summed up as follows: â€Å"Man is the designer of progress on the planet. In that capacity, man ought to be over all frameworks and structures, and not auxiliary to them† (Lutchen 72). While different sources think about every one of these announcements as the genuine statement of purpose, the organization closes the greater part of its official statements through an explanation that looks somewhat like customary statements of purpose. The organization closes its public statements with the announcement, â€Å"Apple focuses on the arrangement of the best individualized computing experience to instructors, understudies, clients, and imaginative expert over the globe through its creative programming, equipment, and Internet offerings.† The company’s statement of purpose gives an ability to read a compass, which is adequately adaptable to the changing business sector circumstances. The companyâ₠¬â„¢s inspiration to keep giving the best equipment, programming and Internet contributions, implies that it will create innovations to adjust as indicated by advertise circumstances. The business has numerous fruitful contenders that represent a test to Apple Inc. Be that as it may, the company’s methodology permits the firm to stay effective. Apple’s primary upper hand lies in its wide cluster of items, particularly its product, equipment, and Internet arrangements (Cruikshank 81). The company’s enormous assets, for example, work force give the sponsorship to the company’s approaches and systems. This implies the organization requires devoted faculty to assist it with putting

Business environment Essays

Business condition Essays Business condition Essay Business condition Essay Nimbleness is the capacity to flourish and thrive in a domain of steady and capricious change. The term dexterous assembling was begat by a US government supported research program at Lehigh University and, Latterly, MIT. It is an undertaking wide technique in which the client is the main goal, change is a chance to improve, and conveying esteem is fundamental. It looks to adapt to request instability by permitting changes to be made in a financially feasible and opportune way. As the progress into the twenty-first century happens there are radical changes occurring that are reshaping the mechanical scene of western economies. Clients need to be dealt with independently. The commercial center has gotten really worldwide and requires low volume, top notch, custom explicit items. These items have both exceptionally short life cycles and improvement creation lead times. Everything is changing quick and eccentrically. The quick pattern towards a variety of completed items has lead numerous organizations into issues with inventories, overheads, and efficiencies. Large scale manufacturing doesn't have any significant bearing to items where the clients require little amounts of profoundly modified, structure to-arrange items, and where extra administrations and worth included advantages like item updates and future reconfigurations are as significant as the item itself. This prompts a people serious, relationship driven activity. Flawless quality and significant levels of administration are normal and required. Readiness identifies with the interface between the organization and the market. Basically it is a lot of capacities for meeting broadly differed client necessities as far as value, detail, quality, amount and conveyance. Spryness has been communicated as having four basic standards: conveying an incentive to the client; being prepared for change; esteeming human information and aptitudes; shaping virtual organizations. The organization must expel the impediments that keep it from assembling with high speed the set-ups, the unreasonable material taking care of, the poor physical stream, and all creation interferences. What's more, the organization must smooth out the physical stream, incorporate the procedures and close the separations between gracefully, creation, gathering, circulation, and the end client. The accentuation must be on rapidly fulfilling the administration chain of occasions from the time a client conveys a solicitation until he is fulfilled. In spite of the fact that the word producing is utilized with this idea, the standards of nimbleness can similarly apply to different elements of a business and to support enterprises. The agilitys achievement has pulled in excess of 150 Fortune-500 organizations. Lean, adaptable and spry in gracefully chain A flexibly chain is the way toward moving merchandise from the client request through the crude materials stage, flexibly, creation, and conveyance of items to the client. Market requests, client assistance, transport contemplations, and estimating limitations all must be comprehended so as to structure the gracefully chain adequately Managing the flexibly chain for upper hand isn't simply to decrease costs. All physical and intelligent occasions inside the gracefully chain must be ordered quickly, precisely, and viably. Leanness, adaptability and deftness must be used proactively at providers and their providers. These between organization coordinated efforts made can assist with accomplishing wanted financial results that the individual firms can not accomplish independently. Such systems permit firms to consolidate assets to pick up economies of scale, get advancements and assets, gain information, and enter advertises past their individual ability. They additionally can assist with accomplishing proceeding with gains in effectiveness, work profitability, and decrease of process duration and stock. Correlation of lean, adaptable and lithe Lean creation purportedly consolidates the advantages of specialty and large scale manufacturing, without their weaknesses. It conveys quality and assortment without the cost punishment of art creation and the enormous cost preferred position of large scale manufacturing. Adaptability is an element of the companys creation framework. It is the characteristic capacity to alter or adjust its asset arrangement as per new or changing requests in the market. Deftness is the capacity to flourish and succeed in a situation of consistent and flighty change. Lean assembling is by and large truly adept at doing the things you can control. Deft assembling manages the things we can NOT control. Nimbleness is based upon the firm establishment of world class or lean assembling strategies, combined with an association that is truly, innovatively, and administrative set up for fast and unusual change. Among the four basic standards of dexterity: Delivering an incentive to the client, being prepared for change, esteeming human information and aptitudes, shaping virtual organizations, the initial three can be found inside the working methods of reasoning of organizations for the most part thought to be lean as depicted in The Machine that Changed the World. To sum up this correlation, readiness, adaptability and leanness are not choices, yet are commonly supporting ideas. Together they improve intensity and the possibilities of endurance in an inexorably unpredictable and worldwide business condition.

Feminism in Post-war United States

The development of a fair and compassionate society, much the same as other social and institutional realities is a long and dull procedure, all things considered, the assignment should be finished. Inside the United States, the development of such a general public stands because of the different recorded changes inside the nation, a case of which can be found in the progressions inside the nation after its cooperation in the Second World War. The country’s interest in Second World War end up being gainful for its residents on specific viewpoints as it empowered what Reinhold Niebuhr would state as the rise of the ‘children of light’.In line with Niehbur’s contention in his book The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness, the ‘children of light’ rose inside the post-World War II United States as the conditions inside the nation empowered the improvement of a general public which decided on solidarity inside the states of opportunity and request (20-21). A case of this is apparent in the improvement of the women's activist development in post-World War II United States. The women's activist development in the United States remains because of the patriot and social developments in post-World War II United States.Feminist developments inside the United States during this period appeared as either communist women's liberation, radical women's liberation, or liberal woman's rights. Every one of these strands of women's liberation centers around issues relating to women’s prohibition from the political circle; they contrast anyway in their view with regards to what empowers such a rejection. Communist women's activists contend that such a rejection remains because of the ethical request of social organizations.Radical women's activists, then again, contend that such an avoidance remains because of the pervasive sex or sexual orientation framework in the public arena. At long last, liberal women's activists conten d that such a rejection remains because of the disparity among the genders. Notwithstanding the distinctions of these three strands of woman's rights referenced over, the advancement of these three strands shows the way where post-World War II United States settled on the improvement of uniformity between the genders through the attribution of judiciousness as well as office upon women.Amongst the strands of woman's rights referenced above, it is the underlying strand [radical feminism] which end up being critical for the advancement of the women's activist development during the underlying time of post-World War II America as it featured the advancement of the second rush of women's liberation in the United States. Betty Friedan (1968), in her book The Feminine Mystique, determines the contrast between the first and second flood of feminism.She contends that instead of the main influx of woman's rights which was portrayed by the making of the ‘feminine mystique’ which empowered the revelation of women’s selves inside the setting of their underlying jobs in their professions, families, and connections; the second rush of women's liberation was described by the deconstruction of the ‘feminine mystique’ because of women’s acknowledgment of the ceaselessly severe character of their underlying ‘freed’ position in the public arena (33-34). Since the subsequent wave was affected by the social equality fights and harmony fights, it turned out to be progressively lobbyist in character.An case of this dissident character of the second influx of woman's rights is evident in Kate Millet’s radical strand of women's liberation in her book Sexual Politics. Kate Millet (2000), in her book Sexual Politics, talks about one of the fundamental issues of the women's activist development in post-World War II United States. Inside her book, Millet contends that imbalance between the genders remains because of the inconsist ent appropriation of intensity among the genders in the public eye. She contends that women’s subjection remains because of the ideological teaching of ladies by a man centric society.She states that the â€Å"essence of politics† as force includes trying to demonstrate that â€Å"however quieted its current appearance might be, sexual territory acquires all things considered as maybe the most unavoidable belief system of our way of life and gives its most crucial ideas of power† (Millet 25). The title of her book Sexual Politics in this way expects to introduce her perspective on how women’s subjection remains because of the continuation of male centric governmental issues inside both the private and open circles of life.Millet partitions her book into three sections. The initial segment entitled â€Å"Sexual Politics† presents Millet’s proposal with respect to the idea of intensity relations between the genders. The subsequent part entitle d â€Å"Historical Background† presents a review of the women's activist battle inside the United States during the nineteenth and twentieth hundreds of years. At long last, the third part entitled â€Å"The Literary Reflection† presents Millet’s sees with respect to how the force relations between the genders are obvious in the scholarly works of D.H. Lawrence, Henry Miller, Norman Mailer, and Jean Genet. Millet’s contention that the substance of abstract works reflects the force relations between the genders depends on the supposition that writing has a mimetic character. As such, for Millet the substance of abstract works reflect reality and henceforth the substance of scholarly works might be utilized as a methods for checking how ladies have been consistently subjected by men through their inculcation of a male centric ideology.Within this specific situation, the significance of Millet’s previously mentioned book may along these lines be attri buted to its reality as a socio-authentic content which accepts writing as a source material for a speculation about the connections among people in the non-artistic world from the late nineteenth century to right now. Moreover, Millet’s book remains as the main content which utilizes a women's activist methodology in perusing or deciphering artistic works.In line with Niehbur’s guarantee in regards to the rise of the ‘children of light’, one may take note of that the improvement of the women's activist development in post-World War II United States indicated a case of the rise of the ‘children of light’ since the development empowered the advancement of a United States which settled on the balance between the genders along these lines making a free and organized society through the rise of works that not just undercut the prevalent philosophy in the public eye during that period yet in addition made another point of view in comprehension real ity.In the instance of Kate Millet’s Sexual Politics, this is apparent in her making of a women's activist outlook for surveying abstract works.

Words and Feelings That Often Come up in Marriage

Words and Feelings That Often Come up in Marriage Relationships Spouses & Partners Print Using Words for Different Feelings Words and feelings that often come up in marriage By Sheri Stritof Sheri Stritof has written about marriage and relationships for 20 years. Shes the co-author of The Everything Great Marriage Book. Learn about our editorial policy Sheri Stritof Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Carly Snyder, MD on February 01, 2020 facebook twitter linkedin Carly Snyder, MD is a reproductive and perinatal psychiatrist who combines traditional psychiatry with integrative medicine-based treatments.   Learn about our Medical Review Board Carly Snyder, MD on February 01, 2020 Verywell / Nusha Ashjaee More in Relationships Spouses & Partners Marital Problems LGBTQ Violence and Abuse Everyone has moments when they just cant come up with the right word to describe what theyre feeling or trying to say. You might be angry and start sputtering. You may feel overwhelmed and that leaves you speechless. The words are thereâ€"you just cant find them when youre overcome by emotion. Here are some words that describe feelings that frequently crop up in marriages and relationships. You might find the right word here if youre having difficulty expressing yourself. You might not want to consult a list in the heat of the moment, but you can always refer to it if youre trying to write your thoughts down. When Youre Feeling Amorous Amorousâ€"thats a good word right there, isnt it? When youre looking for a word to tell your spouse that youd like to head into the bedroom, to the sofa or even to the hammock, you might say that youre feeling aroused, frisky, intimate, passionate, playful, romantic, seductive, sexy or stimulated. When Youre Feeling Angry The term anger covers a wide scale. You might just be aggravated, agitated, bothered, distressed, disturbed, exasperated, irritated, irked, offended, peeved, provoked or vexed. Then again, something significant or serious may have happened so you feel enraged, furious, incensed, infuriated or outraged.   When Youre Confused   Did she just stay what you think she said? Did she mean it the way it sounded? Youre probably baffled, bewildered, clueless, lost, mixed up, mystified, perplexed, puzzledâ€"or just plain stumped. When Your Back Is to the Wall   When youre accused of some wrongdoing, whether deservedly or not, youll probably feel attacked, blamed,  maybe even cornered. When Youre Scared   Like anger, fright is an emotion that comes in a variety of degrees. You might feel mildly alarmed, anxious, apprehensive, concerned, edgy or nervous.  Or maybe your spouse has just said, Can you sit down? We need to talk. This will most likely bring on a stronger, more visceral reaction and you may feel frantic, paralyzed, petrified or terrified. When Youre Happy   Ah, pleasure. When things are going well and your spouse has just said or done something to light up your world, you might say you feel centered, content, ecstatic, enchanted, elated, excited, exhilarated, fantastic, fulfilled, joyful, jubilant, overjoyed, peaceful, pleased, splendid or thrilled. If the two of you are recovering from a bad spell, you might feel encouraged or optimistic. When Youre Hurt   Hurt covers a spectrum of emotions, too. When your spouse says or does something to hurt you, your feelings can run the gamut from discontent to devastation. You might feel abused, belittled, berated, betrayed, bitter, broken, cheated, condemned, deceived, degraded, humiliated, inadequate, inferior, insignificant, insulted, mistreated, persecuted, rejected, robbed, scorned, small, squashed, stifled, tormented, tortured or wounded.   When Youre Lonely   You can feel lonely in a roomful of people or when youre sitting beside your spouse. Its why you feel lonely in this situation and what happened  to cause your feeling that matters. Maybe you feel abandoned, adrift, alienated, alone, deserted, discarded, disconnected, empty, excluded, forgotten, ignored, incomplete, isolated, invisible, left out, neglected, unneeded, useless, unaccepted, unappreciated or worthless. When You Feel Loved   Hopefully, your spouse makes you feel cherished, needed, pampered, spoiled and treasured.   When You Feel Overwhelmed   Feeling overwhelmed can be good or bad. On the bright side, you may feel amazed, astonished, awestruck, dazed or delighted by something your spouse has done. On the other hand, you may feel ambushed, appalled, disbelieving, horrified, incredulous, overcome, shocked or stunned. When youre overwhelmed not by something that has surprised you but by something that has been going on for a period of time, the weight of the problem might leave you feeling smothered or suffocated. When You Feel Resentful   A lot of things can lead to resentment, but the feeling usually rears its ugly head when you feel shortchanged in some respect. You might say that you feel controlled, judged, manipulated, owned, powerless, repressed, trapped, used, victimized, violated, intimidated or even exploited.   When Youre Sad   Poetry and prose are replete with words to describe sadness. Depending on the degree of your sorrow and what has caused it, you might describe your feeling as blue, bummed, crushed, defeated, dejected, demoralized, destroyed, disappointed, discontented, discouraged, disheartened, disillusioned, dismal, grieving, gloomy, heartbroken, helpless, hopeless, let down or pessimistic. When Youre Sorry   Weve all been there, opening our mouths or taking some action that we instantly regret. You probably feel apologetic, ashamed, guilty, regretful or sheepish â€" or maybe even all these things at once when youve hurt someone you love. When Youre Tired Were not talking about how you feel after a long workday, but rather than feeling that comes over you when youve tried and tried to make things right but to no avail. You might feel burned out, drained, exhausted, fatigued, lifeless, overloaded, stretched and weary. When He Understands Where Youre Coming From   Its a great experience, feeling accepted, complete, listened to and recognized. When Youre Unsure To some extent, these words can go hand-in-hand with confusion. Your spouse has said or done something that youre trying to decipher and figure out. From there, you can decide how to respond. Unsure words come more into play when you think you might understand where your spouse is coming from and youre pretty sure youre not going to like it. Youre probably feeling cautious, guarded, leery, pensive, suspicious, torn and wary. Hopefully, these words will pop into your head the next time you need them, but writing down your favorites wont hurt, either. Why Sharing Feelings With Your Spouse Is Worth the Emotional Risk

Aristotle’s Introduction to Function, Reason, and Virtue - Literature Essay Samples

In the first two books of Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle asserts that the function of humans is to practice rational activity, which completed over a lifetime makes a good life. Aristotle first explores the function and ends of all actions and things, defines the function of humans as rational activity, more closely defines the human capacity for reason in relation to the human soul, and then begins to connect rational activity to the all-important practice of virtues. In this essay, I will explore these topics more fully while looking for alternative conclusions and weaknesses in Aristotle’s train of reasoning, which starts with the claim that all things have ends and a function, and culminates in an ethics grounded in virtues. For the sake of brevity, I will not address Aristotle’s argument about ends as a means to the highest end of happiness. Actions have ends (1094a1-5 and 1097a1) Aristotle claims that all actions have ends, the completion of which being the function of said action. He gives examples: â€Å"health is the end of medicine, a boat of boat building, victory of generalship, and wealth of household management† (Nicomachean Ethics, 1094a.3). The ends of each action is considered the good of that action (1097a1), and so it logically follows that the function of said activity is to achieve this good. For example, Tom knits scarves. Tom must think that the creation of scarves is a good thing, maybe because he enjoys having a variety of scarves in his wardrobe. The function of his knitting is to create the scarves, which are the end of his activity. Thus, the good of Tom knitting is the creation of scarves. Aristotle complicates his assertion with two technicalities: â€Å"Wherever there are ends apart from the actions, the products are by nature better than the activities,† (1094a.2). Ends can take on two forms: intangible activities or tangible products (1094a2). Aristotle ranks the products as innately better – which I take to mean more important – than the activities. In Tom’s case, the scarves themselves are better than the knitting skills which he acquires in the process of making the scarves. This seems plausible, as the supposed goal of learning to knit scarves is to have the scarves themselves. However, what if an end of Tom’s knitting is to relax by doing a repetitive activity? He still uses the scarves and considers having this product just as gratifying as being able to relax while knitting. In this situation, it may follow by Aristotle’s reasoning that the scarf itself is still innately better than Tom’s relaxation. This seems odd. Taking Aristotle’s statement to an extreme, Tom’s scarves would be innately better than relaxation even if he never used a scarf and discarded all the scarves he made. A counterargument is that once Tom does not care for the scarves, his original activity is no longer to knit scarves. His activity would be knitting in order to relax, with the end being said relaxation. Either interpretation shows the complexity and ambiguity already latent in Aristotle’s logic, which weaken the overall groundwork for Aristotle’s argument. Confusion about the importance of tangible versus intangible ends here may lead to more confusion once Aristotle addresses the function of humans. Further complication arrives with the possibility of multiple ends: â€Å"And so, if there is some end of everything achievable in action, the good achievable in action will be this end; if there are more ends than one, [the good achievable in action] will be these ends,† (1097a1). With the assertion that some ends are better than others, and the possibility of multiple ends, one may experience the natural urge to rank the importance of each end. There may be many beneficial ends to Tom’s knitting: scarves, relaxation, the development of a practical skill, increased hand dexterity, gratitude or money from those who receive the scarves, respect from people impressed by Tom’s knitting skills, and so the list of ends may go on. It seems simplistic and unreasonable to conclude that the scarf itself outweighs the value of all these other ends. However, it may be necessary to choose a highest end considering Aristotle’s language when speaking of function. Aristo tle considers many ends for an action, but only one function. Thus, as a knitter, Tom may receive many tangible and intangible ends from knitting, but the ultimate function of being a knitter is to knit well by making excellent scarves. The transition from plural ends to singular functions is puzzling. This becomes significant when Aristotle assumes that humans have a single function: rational activity. All actions and ends that comprise a well going life must in some way relate to this singular function. One may counter my critique by saying that all ends eventually are means to the single end of happiness, an argument I do not fully address in this essay. All things have a function: professions and body parts (1097a9-11) In Section 7 of Book I, Aristotle transitions from ends to functions, specifically the function of professions and human body parts. In this paper, I will accept the assertion that happiness is the ultimate end of human life. To better understand what happiness entails, Aristotle prescribes that â€Å"we first grasp the function of a human being,† (1097a10). Function determines actions and, consequentially, ends. Tom’s function as a knitter is to knit well. His characteristic action is to knit and his end is a well-crafted scarf. Surprisingly, Aristotle is in a way working backwards by first defining the human end as happiness and then trying to find the human function as a way of discerning what human activity should be. First, he firmly established that actions have functions. Aristotle often speaks of actions and professions synonymously, as many of the actions he cites – flautist, sculptor, craftsman, boat building, generalship – are also trades (1094a3, 1097b9). It follows that all professions have a function. â€Å"Then do the carpenter and the leather worker have their functions and actions, but has a human being no function? Is he by nature idle, without any function?† (1097b10). Here is Aristotle’s first leap in logic. He equates professions and actions to being human, but these are by no means the same thing. Expecting humans to have an innate function because other crafts, actions, and decisions appear to have functions is a reasonable line of thought, but not a steadfast logical proof. It may be that humans are â€Å"by nature idle,† (1097b10). Without an external influence – be it orders to do a job, necessities for survival, societal or religious expectations – humans may be purposeless. True, th is idea seems unlikely, but Aristotle does not address the possibility at any length. This is a problem characteristic of empirical theories, where observations lead to highly probable conclusions, but lack the unquestioning authority which follows from a purely logical proof. He goes on to examine the function of body parts: â€Å"Or, just as eye, hand, foot, and, in general, every [bodily] part apparently has its function, may we likewise ascribe to a human being some function apart from all of these?† (1097b11). Organs do have functions: eyes grant sight, hands grant dexterity, feet grant mobility. Once again, equating body parts to the whole of a human being seems to be a stretch of logic. It is like saying, â€Å"Big toes function to keep us balanced, thus humans function to. . .† This stands at odds with the next step in Aristotle’s argument, in which he attributes humans with the special ability to reason. Within paragraphs, humans are equated to feet and designated as the only species capable of reason, effectively setting humans above all other living species. The function of human activity is rational activity (1098a12-14) The next stage in Aristotle’s reasoning is to prove that â€Å"the special function of a human being† is â€Å"activity and actions of the soul that involve reason (1097b12, 1098a14). For purposes of modern interpretation, the â€Å"soul† is like the â€Å"mind†. Let us trace his reasoning: Aristotle first assumes that the function of humans is unique to them. He can then use process of elimination to discover which character trait is a function: humans share â€Å"a life of nutrition and growth† with all living things and a â€Å"life of sense perception† with all animals, so these are ineligible (1098a12). The only trait Aristotle sees as being unique to humans is a capacity for reason or rationality (1098a13). However, just having the capacity to reason does not make for a good life, one must actively practice reason over the course of a lifetime. Done well, this will lead to happiness and a fulfilled life. There are several objections one might have with this conclusion, one being that a capacity for reason, or rationality, is not unique to humans. In modern times, many people believe that non-human animals have the ability to reason and possibly feel emotions as humans do. Suppose that Tom the knitter has a dog, Frodo. Frodo displays many actions that seem to show a capacity for reason: Frodo seems especially attached to certain people, including Tom. Frodo also has preferences when it comes to food and toys. When faced with an obstacle course or difficult new trick to learn, Frodo does well in solving the puzzle. There is clearly a system of communication which Frodo uses with other dogs as well as Tom. It is unclear whether Frodo has the same capacity for self-reflection, morality, and foresight that Tom does – traits which may be vital to Aristotle’s conception of rationality. The conception of animal intelligence in the B.C. era was far different from that of today. By a modern perspective, even rationality may be disqualified as the â€Å"special function† of humans in Aristotle’s process of elimination. There are several other aspects of human life that could be considered unique to human beings: sophisticated speech patterns for communication, physical differences from other animals, increased capacity for empathy with other humans, higher connection to a god than other animals, very complex civilizations, unrivaled cultural diversity within the species, and so on. Aristotle does not consider these options in Nicomachean Ethics. Even if he did see one of these characteristics as unique to humans in addition to rationality, the assumption that beings have a single function would only leave room for the latter characteristic. Aristotle’s prescription for rational activity done well over a lifetime is at once restricting and frustratingly ambiguous. Directly after discussing rationality, Aristotle reminds the reader that, â€Å"This then, is a sketch of the good; for presumably, we must draw the outline first, and fill it in later,† (1098a17). While restricted to the first two books of Nicomachean Ethics, to this â€Å"sketch of the good,† it is difficult to precisely define Aristotle’s conception of rationality. In a strict sense, a life and â€Å"soul in accord with reason or requiring reason† may require a life devoted to contemplation, such as that of a philosopher (1098a14). In this case, Tom may not be living a good life by spending all his time knitting in an absent-minded manner. Tom could be a kind person with scarves that benefit others, but he is not necessarily engaged in rational activity. In a looser interpretation, Tom may be living a good, rational life by acting practically and recognizing that being a knitter is the most beneficial lifestyle he can fulfill. Tom may also lead a rational life by living virtuously, as I will explain later in this essay. In the next section, Aristotle’s notion of reason becomes clearer as he relates reason to the soul, the next stage in his argument which I will address. The human soul has multiple parts (1102a9-1103a19) The soul, which can be taken as the mind in modern terms, is split into rational and nonrational parts. The nonrational part of the soul is divided into two parts: half controls nutrition and growth, which is present in all living things, and half represents what Aristotle calls â€Å"appetite and desires† (1102a11, 1102b18). Desire is a part of the soul sometimes â€Å"clashing and struggling with reason,† (1102b15). The mark of a person who excels in the human function who may be called an excellent, virtuous person – has a soul in which desires are in sync with the rational half of the soul (1102b16). Desires that do not â€Å"listen to reason† cause people to act irrationally, or poorly (1102b18). Desires may be in sync with the rational soul to different degrees; the more in sync that they are, the more virtuous the person. Aristotle briefly states that the rational half of the soul is also divided into a sect that has reason innately and sect that l istens to reasons as the desirous soul does (1103a19). Let us explore Tom the knitter’s soul as a means for clarification. The nutritive sect of Tom’s soul keeps him alive and functioning on the most basic level, as a living being. Recently, there has been a problem within Tom’s knitting guild: a dispute broke about between the knitters and the guild is considering splitting into smaller organizations. The desirous, nonrational sect of Tom’s soul is pushing him to split the guild. Tom’s desire is fueled by anger with the other knitters, pride, and a tendency to act radically in situations such as these. One of the older guild members advises Tom to resist the split, as it will ultimately harm all members of the guild, including Tom. The rational part of Tom’s mind that listens to reason recognizes that the older guild member is correct. In fact, the innately rational part of Tom’s mind had already been assured that encouraging the split was a poor decision. Being a mostly virtuous person, Tom acts rationally and decides to help maintain unity within the knitting guild. All of sects of Tom’s soul must be in sync for him to not only think of the rational thing to do, but then actually carry out the rational action. If Tom was a particularly rational, virtuous person he would feel no hesitation in maintaining the guild, as his desires would naturally fall in line with rational soul. Rationality is connected to the virtues and to a good life (1098a15, 1102a1-1103b8, 1106a3-1108b16) I have already been using the language of â€Å"virtue†, which is the last step Aristotle takes in linking the function of humans to a well going life. â€Å"Now each function is completed well by being completed in accord with the virtue proper [to that kind of thing]. And so the human good proves to be activity of the soul in accord with virtue† or multiple virtues (1098a15). Aristotle presents six virtues in his discussion of the soul. Virtues of thought, which include â€Å"wisdom, comprehension, and prudence,† come from the rational soul (1103a19). Virtues of character, which include â€Å"generosity and temperance,† come from the nonrational soul (1103a19). In uniting the knitting guild, Tom displayed the virtue of wisdom by knowing what to do. He also had the generosity to forgive his fellow knitters and the temperance needed to control his anger. It is surprisingly that some virtues important to a good life fall under the nonrational soul. Aristotl e does not say that these virtues are any less important, even though they do not directly stem from the human function of rational activity. It may be that these virtues can only manifest is the desirous half of the soul works in sync with the rational half. To embody the virtues is to practice rational activity well or in an excellent manner. So, as long as the virtues are well defined, one has a clear picture of what a rational life entails. Unfortunately, there appears to be a multitude of virtues which all require a delicate balance between excess and deficiency (1106b10). For example: the virtue of bravery is a balance between rash confidence and cowardice (1107b2). Thus, my final critique of Aristotle’s argument for human function is that, in the end, readers of Nicomachean Ethics are not presented with a clear guide for a good life, which was Aristotle’s original reason for determining the function of human beings (1097b9-10). A roadmap the good life begins to form; it involves rational control over desires and embodying virtues by practicing any number of character traits with moderation. As Aristotle states – though he does not consider this a shortcoming as I do – he is presenting â€Å"sketch of th e good,† (1098a17). In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle presents a sophisticated view of the human function as rational activity, which done excellently over a lifetime makes for a good, happy life. Aristotle first explores the idea that all actions have ends, which becomes very complex considering that a single action can have many ends and that higher value is placed on the products of actions. Aristotle then links ends to the single function that each profession and human body part has; from this information he makes the reasonable assumption that humans have a unique function as well. Through a very curt process of elimination, Aristotle concludes that human function is rational activity, which from a modern perspective may not be considered unique to the human species. Some of the ambiguity about what a rational life entails is partly remedied when Aristotle discusses the rational and nonrational parts of the soul. Lastly, Aristotle connects rationality to virtues. Surprisingly, virtues of character t han are controlled by the nonrational part of the soul are essential for living an excellent life. The explanation and evaluation of Aristotle’s argument for the function of humans is based on thefirst two books of Nicomachean Ethics, and I am confident that many of the critiques presented in this essay are addressed within later sections of Aristotle’s work. Works Cited Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. Ed. Terence Irwin. Second ed. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Pub., 1999. Print.